Figure 3. Phase I metabolism of haloperidol. CPHP, chlorophenyhydroxypiperidine; CR, carbonylreductase; FBPS, fluorobutyrophenon acid; HPP+, haloperidol pyridinium; RHPP+ reduced HPP+. The new atypical antipsychotic risperidone is also metabolized by cytochrome CYP2D6. Patients who are homozygous

to the CYP2D6*4 allele, ie, slow metabolizers, also show higher this website plasma levels. Furthermore, schizophrenic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical patients who were heterozygous for cytochrome CYP2C19 and CYP1A2 had fewer side effects. Cytochrome CYP1A2*1F seems to be important too. Using the PANSS (Positive and Negative Symptom Scale), a poorer therapy response regarding the negative symptoms could be seen in homozygous CYP1A2*1F allele patients. Pharmacokinetic aspects are also responsible for the plasma levels of other drugs, eg, amisulpride. Tenfold differences in the amisulpride plasma level can be measured at the same dosage. We found the same results for the atypical antipsychotic clozapine and also for other antipsychotics, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical such as risperidone. Too low and too high plasma levels reduce the therapy response and arc the reason for many side effects at high plasma levels. Multidrug resistance protein On Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the pharmacokinetic

level, drug nonresponse can also occur via mechanisms affecting the efflux of a diverse range of drugs out of the cells or the permeability of the blood–brain barrier. These mechanisms have evolved during cell evolution in order to protect, against toxic environmental substances or metabolites. The extensively described efflux mechanism is mediated via P-glycoprotein(P-gp)or MDRl. Multidrug resistance in humans is caused by the overexpression of the multidrug transporter: P-gp/MDR1.This overexpression can be induced by drugs affecting the MDR1 gene transcription or via functional Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical genetic polymorphisms. P-gp is an adenosine triphosphate (ATP)–dependent transmembrane efflux pump present in the hepatic, renal, and endothelial

cells forming the blood-brain barrier. The only common structural feature of MDR1 substrate compounds identified so far is their relatively hydrophobic and amphipathic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical nature. Risperidone and quetiapine are relatively good substrates to the P-gp, whereas haloperidol, clozapine, and flunitrazepam are hardlytransported or not at all.10 So far, a total of 28 SNPs has been found on the MDR1 gene. Interestingly, the C2435T polymorphism, which causes no amino acid change, Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase has been found to be associated with duodenal expression of MDRl.11,12 The C2435T mutation is located in an noncoding promoter position (exon 26) of the MDR1 gene13 and is therefore unlikely to be the only cause of this effect. Up to now, the results of worldwide clinical studies are still inconsistent regarding the association of the C2535T polymorphism with MDR1 expression, making further investigations necessary. N-Acetyltransferase Acetylation by NAT is a phase II conjugation reaction. It is controlled by two autosomal alleles at a single gene locus.