, 2011); attempts at more translationally valid

models include underwater trauma (Richter-Levin, 1998), (Moore et al., 2014) and physical abuse by a conspecific (social defeat; (Golden et al., 2011), (Krishnan, 2014). Although most stress work has been conducted in male animals, there is a growing body of evidence that stress affects fear learning and memory in a sex-specific manner. In eyeblink conditioning studies, prior exposure to tailshock stress elicits opposing inhibitors effects in males and females: while conditioned responses increase in males after stress exposure, females exhibit fewer conditioned responses, an effect that depends on circulating Pazopanib cell line estradiol (Wood and Shors, 1998). In males, chronic restraint stress (Izquierdo et al., 2006) psychosocial stress (Wilson et al., 2014), and early-life stress (Stevenson et al., 2009) can disrupt fear extinction compared to control animals, consistent with the idea that impaired extinction in PTSD patients Selleck GDC-973 is due in part to trauma exposure. In females, however, findings are less consistent. Chronic restraint

stress has been found to enhance extinction processes in females (Baran et al., 2009), but environmental stress (Gruene et al., 2014) has been found to impair extinction. Because of the limited reports currently in the literature, the role of estradiol in modulating stress effects on extinction is difficult to parse; however, since high estradiol status is frequently reported to enhance extinction in both women and female animals (Lebron-Milad et al., 2012), it follows that estradiol-stress interactions likely contribute to extinction outcomes (Antov and Stockhorst, 2014). This line of inquiry is particularly deserving of increased attention, with special consideration for stressor type and timing. The studies described above examined the effects of stress during adulthood, but stress exposure during childhood or adolescence can also have long-term effects on fear conditioning and extinction processes,

often in a sex-dependent manner. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase Such models are particularly relevant to PTSD because prior exposure to stress—especially in early life—is one of the greatest risk factors for PTSD after a trauma in adulthood (Heim et al., 1997). Maternal separation stress (MS) has been shown to impair extinction retrieval in males (Wilber et al., 2009) and produce robust spontaneous recovery of an extinguished context fear response in females (Xiong et al., 2014). Complicating this finding, however, are results from another group showing that neonatal stress can preferentially amplify footshock sensitivity in females (Kosten et al., 2005). In contrast to MS, peri-pubertal stress exposure (predator odor plus elevated platform) has been found to impair extinction in males, but facilitate it in females (Toledo-Rodriguez and Sandi, 2007).