, 2011; Gandy and DeKosky, 2013; Malenka and Malinow, 2011; Vaillend et al., 2002). Ultimately, the value of Shank mutant mice will depend critically on the ability to use human patients to validate their predictive utility. Recently, whole genome sequencing technology has successfully identified a list of candidate genes in ASD ( Bi et al., 2012; Chahrour et al., 2012; Iossifov et al., 2012; Neale et al., 2012; O’Roak et al., 2011; Sanders et al.,

2012), and this list will likely expand in the future. Because of the rarity of sequence variants across selleckchem the population, it has been challenge to establish a causal role for specific variants in human disease. Functional studies are thus a critical component to determine the pathogenicity of specific genetic variants. The lesson learned from modeling SHANK mutations in mice will almost certainly be valuable to modeling other ASD candidate genes in the future. We thank Juliet www.selleckchem.com/products/PD-0332991.html Hernandez, Benjamin Philpot, Dan Smith, Julia Sommer, and William Wetsel for critical review of the manuscript. We thank Xiaoming Wang and Alexandra Bey for help preparing tables and comments. Work in the lab of Y.-h.J. is supported by Autism Speaks, Phelan-McDermid

Syndrome Foundation, and NIH grants 5K12-HD0043494-08 and R01MH098114-01. Work in the lab of M.D.E. is supported by Pfizer, Inc., and M.D.E. is an employee and shareholder of Pfizer, Inc. “
“The mammalian neocortex plays an important role in higher brain function including cognition, sensory perception, associative learning, and goal-directed motor control. The neocortex is organized in such a way that it is both highly specialized, with defined areas dedicated to specific functions and/or sensory modalities, and highly integrative, with each area receiving converging inputs from Resminostat different thalamic nuclei, other cortical areas, and several neuromodulatory systems. All these inputs are integrated in local neocortical microcircuits, generally considered to be composed of six layers of interconnected excitatory and inhibitory neurons. Early investigations of neocortical

function revealed similar receptive field properties of neurons aligned perpendicular to the brain surface in radial cortical columns (Mountcastle, 1957; Hubel and Wiesel, 1962; Simons, 1978). In primary sensory cortical areas, sensory inputs relayed by the thalamus mainly impact the “granular” layer 4 (L4), which in turn signals to the whole cortical column (although it is important to note that there is also significant direct thalamic input to other layers). The deep infragranular layer 5 (L5) and layer 6 (L6) are the main source of cortical outputs to subcortical structures (such as thalamus, striatum, and brainstem), and layers 2 and 3 (L2/3) contribute an important source of projections to other cortical areas.