The same samples collected at 6 (n = 4), 24 (n = 4) and 48 h (n = 2) were first used to measure the residual

O2 concentration by means of a LDO probe. The HMI modules were maintained Liproxstatin-1 clinical trial at a temperature of 37°C by means of a portable incubator (JP Selecta, Abrera, Spain). To analyze the effect of the yeast fermentate on the microbial community composition, liquid samples were collected from the AC reactor during the control and PF-573228 molecular weight treatment period (Figure 4). After 24 h and 48 h of incubation, a sterile blade was used to cut 6 cm2 of the membrane and mucus layer in the HMI module to collect samples to analyze the adhering bacteria. Samples were named as follows: A or B (control or treatment) + L or M (luminal or mucus compartment) + 0, 24 or 48 (time of incubation). Figure 4 shows a timeline of the experiment with relative sampling points. Biochemical and molecular analyses SCFA and ammonium production: the microbial community activity in the AC was measured in terms of short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) and ammonium production as described by Van de click here Wiele et al. [60]. Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis (DGGE): the structure and composition of the microbial community was evaluated using DGGE on total bacteria, bifidobacteria

and lactobacilli [60]. Metagenomic DNA was extracted from the L and M samples as previously described [61]. DGGE with a 45–60% denaturing gradient (50-65% for bifidobacteria) was used to separate the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products obtained with a nested

approach for the 16S rRNA genes of bifidobacteria (primers BIF164f-BIF662r) and lactobacilli (SGLAB0159f-SGLAB0667r). The first PCR round was followed by a second amplification with primers 338 F-GC and 518R. The latter primers were also used to amplify the 16S rRNA gene of all bacteria on total extracted DNA. The DGGE patterns obtained were subsequently analyzed using the Bionumerics software version 5.10 (Applied Maths, Sint-Martens-Latem, Belgium). In brief, the calculation of similarities was based on the Pearson (product–moment) correlation coefficient. Clustering analysis was performed using the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean clustering algorithm (UPGMA) to calculate the dendrograms of each DGGE gel. A cluster analysis was Enzalutamide also performed on a composite dataset of all the gels with band-matching, Pearson correlation with standardized characters and bootstrap analysis with 1000 samplings. Quantitative PCR (qPCR): Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) for total bacteria, bifidobacteria, and lactobacilli were performed as reported by Possemiers et al. [62]. The qPCR for the Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes phyla was previously described by Guo et al. [63]; that for Faecalibacterium prausnitzii by Vermeiren et al. [64]. Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH): 0.5 cm2 of the membrane were fixed in a solution containing 4% paraformaldehyde in phosphate buffered saline (pH7.