This view would be in keeping with the poor segregation of changes in individual gene expression levels with TCDD sensitivity in the present study. We recently also showed that the number of dissimilar transcriptomic responses between L-E and H/W rats increases as

see more a function of time (Boutros et al., 2011). TCDD exposure and subsequent toxicity are an important issue that could directly affect human health. We focused our experiments on liver tissue because there is extensive hepatotoxicity in rats following exposure to TCDD. The ultimate target organ for lethality remains unknown; however, large hepatic differences exist in toxic end-points between the sensitive L-E and the resistant H/W rats, making liver a good candidate organ for involvement in systemic TCDD toxicities. The role of the AHR genotype in regard to liver toxicity is especially well demonstrated in a study conducted by Pohjanvirta, where transgenic C57BL/6 mice that express the rat wild-type isoform of the AHR Antiinfection Compound Library showed significantly higher expression of AHR and CYP1A1 in comparison to non-transgenic mice, particularly in liver (Pohjanvirta, 2009). That study also demonstrated that liver is a major target for TCDD’s toxic effects; hence, studying differential gene expression in liver is critical to the overall

understanding of TCDD toxicity. By combining existing genetic models with microarray analysis, we have identified key novel candidate genes that are worthy of further investigation for differential expression at the protein level and ultimately in mechanistic

studies to connect altered expression to subsequent overt toxicity. The following are the supplementary materials related to this article. Supplementary Fig. 1.   PCR validation of Sdc1. ABO has served as a paid consultant to the Dow Chemical Company as a member of their Dioxin Scientific Advisory Board. Other authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. This work was supported by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (grant number MOP-57903 to ABO and PCB), the Academy of Finland (grant number 123345 to RP), the Ontario Genomics Institute Inositol oxygenase (to CP) and with the support of the Ontario Institute for Cancer Research to PCB through funding provided by the Government of Ontario. The study sponsors had no role in the study design; in the collection, analysis and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; and in the decision to submit the paper for publication. The authors thank Hanbert Chen, Alexander Wu, Ashley Smith, Janne Korkalainen, Arja Moilanen, and Virpi Tiihonen for excellent technical assistance and support. We are also obliged to Dr. Jouni T. Tuomisto for providing us LnA and LnC rats.

“
“Although mortality rates for seafaring have declined greatly over the course of the 20th century, seafaring has continued to remain amongst the most hazardous of occupations. Merchant shipping is known to have a high rate of fatalities caused by occupational accidents and maritime disasters [1] and [2]. Human and organizational factors account for the vast majority of unanticipated significant problems associated with the design, construction, and operation of ships. For example, Moore et al. [3] found that most accidents result

from a compounding sequence of breakdowns in physical components, human error, and Selleck Venetoclax organizational failures. Technology and automation are often introduced to increase efficiency and safety, reduce workload, reduce human involvement and the effect of human error. However, the human-automation interaction can have consequences for human work and safety as the automation can create new error pathways and delay opportunities for error detection and recovery [4]. The human role in the system is complex since a person’s individual characteristics and states, abilities and competencies affect decision-making and performance on board. The human in the system is both error inducing and an important source of expertise for decision-making and recovery [5]. While the human and system aspects are vital for safety, the organizational aspect also has a fundamental influence on safety [6]. see more The capsizing of

check details the Herald of Free Enterprise just outside the Belgian port of Zeebrügge in 1987, with the loss of 193 lives, is one important example. It emphasizes the organizational aspect of having a poor safety culture on different levels in a shipping company [7]. Corporate safety cultures shaped by the degree of commitment to safety on the management level are often highlighted as the overriding factor for safety performance. Conflicting

safety and production goals, ineffective communication, time pressure, and fierce competition in a complex industry environment, can very likely lead to the stretching of safety margins (often unconsciously), and the migration of behavior towards the boundary of acceptable performance [8], also known as a “drift into failure”. A safety culture that stresses proactive measures for maintaining safety in an organization is a vital counterforce to the possible drift into failure. Thus, to maintain and improve safety and efficiency in safety critical maritime organizations, knowledge is needed about the safety culture and the way it is expressed in attitudes, behaviors, and artifacts. Questionnaires developed for this purpose are often used when assessing an organization’s safety culture. The analysis and interpretation of questionnaire results can provide more knowledge about the maritime safety culture concept and contribute to the formulation of effective interventions to maintain and improve safety and safety culture on board ships.

, 2011, Ritchie et al., 2011 and Yood et al., 2012). Early prevention, detection, and treatment advances have shifted our conceptualization and management of most cancers from acute to chronic disease models, which are often modulated by psychosocial factors (Karelina and DeVries, 2011, Sullivan et al., 2012, Williams, 2008 and Wyman et al., 2012). This paradigm

shift further fuels our interest in psychosocial contributions to intra-individual variability in cancer outcomes. Meta-analytic reviews suggest stressful life experiences Obeticholic Acid and depression are associated with poorer survival and higher mortality across a diverse array of cancer types (e.g., breast, lung, head and neck, hepatobiliary, lymphoid, and hematopoietic cancers) (Chida et al., 2008, Pinquart and Duberstein, 2010 and Satin et al., 2009). Prospective endorsement of depressive symptoms, and cortisol slope were associated with decreased survival in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma

(Cohen et al., 2012). Conversely, selleck chemicals llc among women with metastatic breast cancer, a decline in depressive symptoms conferred survival benefit (Giese-Davis et al., 2011). A recent meta-analysis found the influence of social relationships on mortality comparable to risk conferred by tobacco and alcohol use. Further, the social relationship risk for mortality exceeded risks associated with physical activity (or lack thereof) and obesity (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2010). Inflammation FER often mediates associations between close relationships, depression, and chronic stress, and health (Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 2010). Extending prior cross-sectional findings of social support, depression and inflammatory gene expression associations, ovarian cancer patients with a greater sense of social attachment had a lower likelihood of death (Lutgendorf et al., 2012). Lastly, perceived social isolation or loneliness predicts morbidity and mortality risk across different age

groups (Perissinotto et al., 2012 and Udell et al., 2012). These data highlight the potential utility of life course/life span or ‘bioecological’ perspectives of cancer and cancer survivorship. Most models of mortality and survival rely on tumor characteristics and treatment exposure as prognostic indicators (Merletti et al., 2011, Ward et al., 2004 and Wei et al., 2010). Tumors develop within microenvironments, yet cancers develop within a person nested within several environmental contexts. Colditz and Wei (2012) assert that traditional projections of cancer mortality fail to account adequately for multilevel interactions and reciprocity among biologic pathways, physical/built environment, and social/behavioral factors (Colditz and Wei, 2012).

In general the correlation values between Ig classes were positive but few patients did show negative correlation particularly when IgE was

involved. Overall, the specificity of response to IgE poorly correlated with the other classes being less related to IgM than the others. Within the isotypes the largest amplitude in variation of correlations was observed between IgE and IgA values ( Fig. 1). In order to test whether the overall correlations between classes could be used as discriminator for classification, those coefficients for atopic and non-atopic groups of patients were compared and overall showed some differences (ANOVA, p values ranging between = < 0.001 Roxadustat cell line and 0.13). Inspection of box plots (not shown) as well as R2 and adjusted R2 values (ranging from 0.023 to 0.24 and 0.018 to 0.18, respectively) showed that although the correlations between the Ig-classes were different, they could not be

used in univariate statistic models to predict atopy. As expected when using all correlations in a multivariate approach, PLS-DA produced a reasonable predictive value for this classification (79% sensitivity and 84% specificity for prediction of atopy for left out cross-validation samples; 3 latent variables were used). Moreover, the model vectors relevant to prediction (i.e. regression and Variable Importance of Projection (VIP) vectors) produced valuable qualitative information, suggesting the expected involvement of IgE by indicating that only IgE/IgA or IgE/IgG correlation coefficients possessed some power of discrimination. In order to assess HKI-272 the feasibility of using the immunoglobulin isotypes readout directly, instead of correlation coefficients, to predict milk allergy tolerance, all readouts were used to train a PLS-DA model to discriminate between tolerant and non-tolerant subjects. The resulting model (1 latent variable, data normalized and mean centered) was able to predict tolerance with a cross-validation sensitivity and specificity of 57% and 77% respectively. Inspection of the regression vector values (result not shown) indicates that achieving tolerance is paired with a decrease in dairy

sensitivity. The spots that showed the largest variation (decreases ID-8 and increases) were mainly IgE and the medium contributors mainly IgA driven. Taken together and bearing in mind the clinical criteria of inclusion of the patients in this study, these results were expected; they corroborate a large number of other studies and point to specific IgE as the main parameter to be followed. In agreement with the clinical selection criteria used and as shown in Fig. 2 most of the children involved in this study have shown high levels of specific IgE to milk. Further, when clinically diagnosed milk allergic children were divided into “susceptible” and the ones that have achieved milk “tolerance” after few years, a statistically significant difference (ANOVA p = < 0.

0–Section F. The goal was to interview newly admitted residents within 24 hours of admission.

This would enable staff to address preferences from the beginning of the resident’s stay. Sites were asked to interview long stay residents shortly before the individual’s care planning conference. The next step was to conduct the Preference Satisfaction portion of the interview, ideally within 5 to 7 days after the initial preference interview for short stay residents. Long stay resident preference and satisfaction interviews could be Dabrafenib manufacturer conducted on the same day, or 5 to 7 days apart. Providers were given several options for the choice of interviewer for the preference and satisfaction portions of the interview. Guidelines recommended that the staff member who actually delivers the care should conduct the preference interview; however, to encourage residents to share forthright opinions, a different staff member could be assigned to ask preference satisfaction questions. Among the possible options, communities could (1) use a volunteer or personnel other than a certified nursing assistant (CNA) or activity therapist

to www.selleckchem.com/products/jq1.html conduct preference satisfaction interviews; (2) have the CNA and activity therapist switch interview categories (ie, CNA asks questions about activity preferences, and activity therapist asks about personal care); or (3) deploy licensed nurses or social workers from a neighboring unit or floor to conduct preference satisfaction interviews.23 Staff from pilot sites entered responses from resident preference Methamphetamine and satisfaction interviews into the revised Excel spreadsheet that automatically calculates a preference congruence percentage for each resident. Reports can be generated for each individual resident (for an example, Figure 1), or in aggregate for a household

of residents (Figure 2). As care planning conferences took place, staff members also noted whether the resident, family members or close friends and direct care staff, such as CNAs, attended the meetings and entered this data into the spreadsheet, which calculated participation rates. Pilot sites were asked to fax their NH’s 4 aggregate quality indicator results to the research team (for an example, Figure 3). Individual resident-level information was not shared with researchers. Project coordinators identified by each site were asked to complete a questionnaire (93 items) regarding staff experiences using the new toolkit. The evaluation form asked about the PCC spreadsheet’s functionality and content, the webinar training experience, the resident interview process, challenges in implementing PCC, and overall satisfaction with the toolkit. Responses for most questions used a 5-point Likert scale, with a range from “completely agree” to “completely disagree.” Also, several open-ended questions provided a qualitative perspective on these topics.

The observed labeled cell bodies were comparable in size and appeared in clusters, as previously described by Vavrek et al. (2007). The primary and secondary motor cortices (M1/M2) did not exhibit labeled neurons in any groups. Only one animal, from the AC group, was found to have FG-positive neurons in the primary somatosensory cortex (S1). In the brainstem, animals from the AC group showed labeled neurons in the spinal vestibular nucleus (SpVe), lateral vestibular nucleus (LVe), caudal and rostral pontine reticular nuclei (PnO/PnC)

and animals from the AT group exhibited FG-positive neurons in the dorsal and ventral medullary reticular fields Fluorouracil (MdD/MdV), raphe nuclei (Ra), SpVe, LVe and PnO/PnC nuclei. In the 2-week delayed groups, FG-labeled neurons were observed in the LVe nuclei of the 2WDC group and in the PnO/PnC of the 2WDT group. The 4WDC group exhibited few FG-positive neurons in the LVe nuclei, while no labeled neurons were observed in any studied areas of the 4WDT group (Table 1). Animals transplanted with both types of lamina propria had most evident 5-HT immunostained fibers in the rostral stump of longitudinal spinal cord sections (AC—0.9 ± 0.2; AT—1.0 ± 0.5; 2WDC—0.5 ± 0.3; 2WDT—0.4 ± 0.0;

4WDC—0.7 ± 0.2; 4WDT—0.6 ± 0.0). A GFAP negative region delineated the injured area in the spinal cord and, in most animals, 5-HT fibers did not extend beyond the vicinity of the lesion border (AC—0.00 ± 0.0; AT—0.01 ± 0.0; 2WDC—0.00 ± 0.0; 2WDT—0.01 ± 0.0; 4WDC—0.03 ± 0.0; 4WDT—0.02 ± 0.0). Moreover, in the majority of slices analyzed, no 5-HT labeled axons Selleck AZD5363 were found in the caudal stump (AC—0.00 ± 0.0; AT—0.00 ± 0.0; 2WDC—0.01 ± 0.0; 2WDT—0.01 ± 0.0; 4WDC—0.00 ± 0.0; Bortezomib in vitro 4WDT—0.00 ± 0.0) (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4). No differences were detected in the 5-HT immunoreactivity of the rostral, lesion and caudal regions of spinal cord when all groups were compared (Kruskal–Wallis p = 0.37; p = 0.73; p = 0.34, respectively) (Fig. 6). As expected, ascending sensory fibers immunostained

by CGRP were detected in the caudal stump of the experimental groups (AC—1.27 ± 0.3; AT—1.08 ± 0.3; 2WDC—1.42 ± 0.6; 2WDT—1.42 ± 0.8; 4WDC—0.87 ± 0.2; 4WDT—1.10 ± 0.2). There were considerable levels of CGRP fibers in the lesion region (AC—1.71 ± 0.4; AT—1.37 ± 0.3; 2WDC—0.88 ± 0.2; 2WDT—1.19 ± 0.1; 4WDC—0.85 ± 0.2; 4WDT—1.75 ± 0.5), showing that both OLP and RLP transplantation stimulated the growth/sprouting of CGRP fibers in animals submitted to SCI. In the rostral stump, CGRP immunoreactive fibers were also detected in all groups, but particularly in the AT and 2WDC groups (AC—1.56 ± 0.9; AT—3.58 ± 2.1; 2WDC—4.10 ± 3.0; 2WDT—1.40 ± 0.6; 4WDC—1.79 ± 0.9; 4WDT—1.29 ± 0.5) (Fig. 3 and Fig. 5).

In a later study, the authors also noted the decreased expression of Bax and caspase-8 in human small airway epithelial cells exposed to THC, which they suggest could have accounted for the previously observed suppression in Fas-mediated apoptosis ( Sarafian et al., 2005). Although apoptotic pathways were not significantly perturbed following TSC exposure in our present study, Sarafian

et al. and other investigators of tobacco smoke effects have found this to be a commonly disrupted pathway (Jorgensen et al., 2004, Nordskog et al., 2003, Sarafian et al., 2001 and Yauk et al., 2011). It is suspected that the gene expression fold change cutoff of 2 used click here in the present study likely prevented a number of apoptotic genes from being included in the analyses. Cursory analyses with a cutoff of 1.5 shows apoptotic pathways as being significant for TSC exposure as well (data not shown). It is important to note that the marijuana used for this study was obtained from a contracted supplier that provides marijuana for therapeutic use in Canada. It is grown under strictly controlled and documented conditions. Although this study has only examined smoke condensate from a single lot of marijuana, the quality control measures would be expected to minimise differences between marijuana harvests. The TSC used in this study was generated from cigarettes containing Virginia

flue-cured tobacco, Trichostatin A in vivo the type of tobacco typically contained in Canadian cigarettes. This is distinct from the mixed tobacco blends (i.e., Virginia, Burley and Oriental) typically found in American cigarettes. Our Celastrol earlier toxicogenomic examination of TSC from three Canadian cigarette brands containing either Virginia flue-cured or mixed tobacco blends failed to show any appreciable brand-driven differences in gene expression

profiles elicited by in vitro exposures (Yauk et al., 2011). Therefore, we contend that the similarities and difference between MSC and TSC noted in this study can be cautiously extended to other types of tobacco. Nevertheless, it should also be noted that some toxicogenomic studies have shown that cigarette brand (e.g. full flavor vs. low-tar) can have a significant effect on gene expression signatures elicited by in vitro CSC exposures (Lu et al., 2007 and Pickett et al., 2010), and moreover, many aspects of cigarette design (e.g., rod length, filter presence and type, ventilation, packing density, additives, paper type) and smoking method (e.g., ISO, intense) have been shown to influence the composition and toxicological activity of TSC (Adam et al., 2010, O‘Connor and Hurley, 2008 and Rickert et al., 2007). Our work supports the findings of previous studies, which associate TSC exposure with the expression of genes involved in xenobiotic metabolism, oxidative stress, inflammation, and DNA damage response (i.e., cell cycle arrest, protein unfolding, and transcription regulation).

, 2012), were classified as Type I because they presented a plateau that was almost horizontal and parallel to the pressure axis. In this study, such plateau was not reached, indicating widening of pores. Furthermore, the small amount of hysteresis observed in Fig. 1a indicates mesoporosity starting to develop, also characteristic of Type IV isotherms. Reffas et al. (2010) prepared activated carbons by H3PO4-based activation of spent coffee grounds. They observed a Type Buparlisib nmr I isotherm typical of microporous materials for adsorbents prepared with low

impregnation rate (IR = 30%). As the impregnation rate increased some hysteresis was observed, up to a point (IR ≥ 120%) where behavior changed and the isotherms assumed Type IV characteristics, associated with the presence of slit-shaped mesopores, similar to that shown in Fig. 1a. Surface and pore structure parameters derived from the nitrogen isotherms are compiled in Table 1. The produced adsorbent presents both micro and mesopores (approximately 68 and 21% of the total surface area, respectively). Both the specific surface area and total pore volume of the prepared adsorbent (CCAC) are comparable to those obtained by activation of spent coffee grounds with H3PO4 at high impregnation UK-371804 chemical structure rates (SGAC3). Evaluation of

data in Table 1 shows that SGAC3 is strictly mesoporous. The adsorbent prepared in our study, however, is mostly microporous, even though the impregnation rate was high. Such difference is attributed to differences in original porosity of the raw materials employed for production of the adsorbents (Zhang, Ghaly, & Li, 2012). The adsorbent prepared by activation of defective coffee press cake (DCAC) under the same conditions presented much lower surface area in comparison to the one herein prepared,

confirming the significant effect the precursor material have on the physical properties of the prepared adsorbent. Furthermore, the impregnation time employed in our study, 3 min, is significantly shorter than that employed oxyclozanide by Reffas et al. (2010), 3 h, thus not being enough to increase the volume of mesopores. Nonetheless, the phenylalanine molecule is quite small (0.7 × 0.5 × 0.5 nm) and thus both the mesopores (3.6 nm average diameter) and micropores (1.3 nm average diameter) of the corn cob-based adsorbent should be accessible to the amino acid. The micro and mesoporous structure of the prepared adsorbent, as well as the presence of some slit-shaped pores can be seen in the SEM image in Fig. 1b. The functional groups at the surface of the adsorbent, characterized by the Boehm method, were predominantly acid (8.08 mmol/gsorbent), distributed as phenolic (6.66 mmol/gsorbent), carboxylic (0.46 mmol/gsorbent) and lactonic (0.95 mmol/gsorbent) groups. The amount of basic groups was 0.04 mmol/gsorbent.

For example, B. flexus strains NJY2 and NJY4 were isolated from maize processing waste water ( Sanchez-Gonzalez et al., 2011), B. flexus strain NT was isolated from green seaweed ( Trivedi et al., 2011) and B. flexus strain S-27 was isolated from silver mine waste ( Priyadarshini et al., 2012). In this study, a formation water sample was collected from Luliang oilfield in Xinjiang, China (45°41′N, 86°88′E) and a new strain of B. flexus, strain T6186-2, was isolated by the crude-oil degradation experiment

which was performed using the oil as a sole carbon source to identify oil degrading strains. This strain was found to be halotolerant, capable of growing at 0–10% (w/v) NaCl (optimum at 5% NaCl). Strain T6186-2 is mesophilic, with a growth temperature range of 25–40 °C and optimum growth at 35 °C. Colonies of B. flexus strain T6186-2 grown at 35 °C on LB agar plate are gray, smooth, and with wavy margins. Cell morphology was examined using scanning electron Selleck DAPT microscopy (Figure S1). The assimilation of substrates as sole carbon sources was determined using the method described Bafilomycin A1 purchase by Xu et al. (1817–1822). The results showed that d-glucose, maltose, lactose, sorbitol, glycerol, cellobiose, tetradecane and hexadecane are utilized. This strain has been deposited in the China General Microbiological Culture Collection

Center (Accession Number: CGMCC 7531). Susceptibility to antibiotics was detected by the disc-diffusion method described by Smibert (1994). Interestingly, antimicrobial susceptibility testing showed that strain T6186-2 is susceptible to kanamycin, however, resistant to ampicillin, erythromycin, gentamicin, vanomycin, fosfomycin, fosmidomycin, tetracycline and teicoplanin. Here, we present the description of the genomic sequencing and annotation. It represents evidence for the existence of a reservoir of ARGs in nature among microbial populations from deep-subsurface oil reservoirs. Genomic DNA sequencing of B. flexus strain T6186-2 was performed

at BGI (Shenzhen, China) using Solexa paired-end sequencing technology (HiSeq2000 Cell press system, Illumina, Inc., USA) with a 2 × 100 pair end sequencing strategy. One DNA library was generated (412 bp insert size, with Illumina adapter at both ends, detected by Agilent DNA analyzer 2100). Finally, a total of 5,384,564,800 bp data was produced and quality control was performed with the following criteria: 1) reads linked to adapters at both ends were considered sequencing artifacts, then removed; 2) bases with quality index lower than Q20 at both ends were trimmed; 3) reads with ambiguous bases (N) were removed; and 4) single qualified reads were discarded (in this situation, one read is qualified but its mate is not). After filtering, 2,120,601,114 bp clean reads were assembled into scaffolds using Velvet version 1.2.07 with parameters “-scaffolds no” ( Zerbino and Birney, 2008). We used PAGIT flow ( Swain et al., 2012) to prolong the initial contigs and correct sequencing errors.

However, plants can metabolize DON to a variable extend through enzymatic conjugation to glucose ( Berthiller et al., 2009b, Lemmens et al., 2005 and Poppenberger et al., 2003). The resulting “masked” mycotoxin deoxynivalenol-3-β-d-glucoside (D3G) affects protein biosynthesis to a far http://www.selleckchem.com/products/AZD2281(Olaparib).html lower extent than DON in vitro and is therefore regarded as a detoxification product of DON in plants ( Poppenberger et al., 2003). D3G was first detected

in naturally contaminated wheat and maize in 2005 (Berthiller et al., 2005). Since then, the worldwide occurrence of D3G in different cereal crops has been reported (Berthiller et al., 2009a, De Boevre et al., 2012, Desmarchelier and Seefelder, 2011, Li et al., 2011 and Sasanya et al., 2008). The molar percentages of D3G/DON varied strongly in these studies, but reached maximum levels of 46% (Berthiller et al., 2009a). This percentage may increase in the future as a consequence of plant breeding efforts to enhance Fusarium head blight resistance by introgression of resistance loci ( Lemmens et al., 2005). Considerable amounts of D3G were found in foodstuffs such as breakfast cereals, snacks and beers ( Kostelanska et al., 2009 and Malachova et al., 2011). Despite its frequent occurrence, the toxicological PD0332991 in vitro relevance of D3G in humans and animals has not yet been evaluated. The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) stressed the

possibility that D3G is hydrolyzed in the digestive tract of mammals ( JECFA, 2011). Although this assumption is not yet supported by in vivo data, a recent study showed that certain intestinal bacteria are capable of cleaving D3G to DON in vitro ( Berthiller et al., 2011). Numerous studies have examined the toxicokinetics of DON in vivo, revealing two major metabolic pathways: de-epoxidation by anaerobic bacteria and conjugation to glucuronic acid. De-epoxy deoxynivalenol (DOM-1), which is at least 50-fold less toxic than DON ( Sundstøl Eriksen Staurosporine et al., 2004), is formed by anaerobic ruminal or intestinal microbes (summarized by Zhou et al., 2008). DOM-1 can be excreted via the

feces or it can be absorbed and detected in different biological samples of animals, like urine, plasma (reviewed by Rotter et al., 1996), and milk ( Seeling et al., 2006). The ability to detoxify DON to DOM-1 in the upper gastrointestinal tract is considered a major cause for the differences regarding the susceptibility to DON among species ( Pestka, 2007 and Rotter et al., 1996). The main metabolic pathway of mammals to detoxify resorbed DON is glucuronidation, a phase II reaction which reflects one of the most important mechanisms to inactivate xenobiotics by enhancing their polarity and excretability. Studies in different animal species showed that deoxynivalenol-glucuronide (DON-GlcA) is the major DON metabolite in plasma and urine (summarized by Wu et al., 2007).