There may be social or financial pressures on women to breastfeed, and support of formula feeding is important. The NSHPC report on perinatal HIV transmission in the UK [2] noted adverse social factors as a frequent factor in HIV transmission. A recent House of Lords report recommends the provision of free infant formula milk to HIV-positive mothers who have no recourse to public funds [68]. 8.4.2 In very rare instances where a mother who is on effective HAART with a repeatedly undetectable VL chooses to breastfeed, this should not constitute grounds for automatic referral

to child protection teams. Maternal HAART should be carefully monitored and continued until 1 week after all breastfeeding has ceased. Breastfeeding, except during the weaning period, should be exclusive and all breastfeeding, including the weaning period, PF-562271 concentration should have been completed by the end of 6 months. Grading: CX-5461 chemical structure 1B Breastfeeding while not on HAART, or with detectable viraemia on HAART does constitute a potential child protection concern. Because the risk of HIV transmission by breastfeeding is entirely avoidable, maternal breastfeeding

against medical advice has previously been considered a child protection concern warranting referral to social services and, where necessary, legal intervention. The efficacy of ART in reducing HIV transmission by breastfeeding in the UK has not been measured. However, while the African data do not warrant a change in the recommendation not to breastfeed in these UK guidelines, they do make it likely that the risk of transmission is low enough that breastfeeding by a woman with HIV and fully suppressed virus on ART should no longer automatically constitute grounds for a child safeguarding referral. It is

considered safer for women to be engaging with medical services while breastfeeding than for them to be breastfeeding without disclosing this. Data from Africa, in women not on HAART, show that mixed feeding carries a higher risk of HIV transmission than exclusive breastfeeding [69]. It is recommended that breastfeeding be stopped as soon as is acceptable to the mother, but in any case Methocarbamol by 6 months. A short period of mixed feeding may be necessary while ending breastfeeding. 8.4.3 Prolonged infant prophylaxis during the breastfeeding period, as opposed to maternal HAART, is not recommended. Grading: 1D Studies in Africa have included both ART given to the mother and ART given as prophylaxis to the infant during breastfeeding. While serious adverse events were not reported in the infants given nevirapine for up to 6 months [61], there are currently insufficient safety data to advocate this approach given the particular safety concerns regarding the use of nevirapine in adults uninfected by HIV. The use of nevirapine for longer than the 2–4 weeks currently recommended for PEP is not advised [70]. 8.4.

bovis with both narGHJI and narK2X genes from M. tb failed to restore nitrate reductase activity in M. bovis, suggesting the involvement of additional genes/regulatory mechanisms for nitrate reduction that are absent in M. bovis. The −6T/C promoter-linked SNP enabled clear differentiation of M. tb from the other members of the M. tb complex, including M. bovis, BCG, Mycobacterium africanum and Mycobacterium microti, through a PCR-RFLP assay. Tuberculosis in humans is chiefly caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb). However, Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis), the major tuberculosis pathogen in cattle, also causes disease in humans and is usually implicated in extrapulmonary tuberculosis (Wilkins

et al., 1986). Other members of the M. tb complex (MTC), such as M. bovis BCG (BCG), Mycobacterium africanum and Mycobacterium Tofacitinib order microti, rarely cause disease in immunocompromised populations (Metchock et al., 1999; Niemann et al., 2000). Zoonotic transmission of these organisms to humans, especially of M. bovis from cattle and unpasteurized milk, is an important health concern (O’Reilly & Daborn, 1995; Shah et al., 2006). Because M. bovis is naturally resistant to pyrazinamide (Scorpio & Zhang, 1996), a first-line antituberculosis drug, therefore, differentiation of M. tb infection from M. bovis infection is of paramount importance for administering

the appropriate treatment. A classical assay that differentiates M. tb from M. bovis is its high aerobic nitrate reductase of activity (Virtanen, 1960). Furthermore, the nitrate SAHA HDAC order reductase activity of M. tb, but not M. bovis,

increases drastically upon entry into the anaerobic dormant state (Virtanen, 1960; Wayne & Doubek, 1965; Weber et al., 2000). It is thought that M. tb might survive in low-oxygen microenvironments (granulomas) by reducing nitrate to nitrite, using nitrate as a terminal electron acceptor in respiration (Wayne & Hayes, 1998; Wayne & Sohaskey, 2001). Nitrate reduction was shown to be mediated by narGHJI-encoded nitrate reductase in M. tb, but the enhanced reduction of nitrate during hypoxia was attributed to upregulation of NarK2, a putative nitrate/nitrite transporter (Sohaskey & Wayne, 2003). The inability of M. bovis and BCG to efficiently reduce nitrate under both aerobic and hypoxic conditions was ascribed to inactive narGHJI and narK2X gene/gene products (Stermann et al., 2004; Honaker et al., 2008; Sohaskey & Modesti, 2009). Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were detected in the narGHJI promoter region (−215T/C), although it was not ruled out that other SNPs within the narGHJI operon itself could also contribute to this difference in activity (Garnier et al., 2003; Stermann et al., 2004). The response regulator DevR controls the transcription of narK2X in M. tb by binding to multiple Dev boxes (Chauhan & Tyagi, 2008a). A recent study showed that two DevR regulon genes, narK2 and narX, are inactive in M. bovis and BCG, compared with M.

In our present study, PPIase was identified as one of the 12 gastric cancer-specific H. pylori genes. The result was supported by PCR-based screening of H. pylori strains, demonstrating that 50% of the H. pylori isolates obtained from gastric ZVADFMK cancer patients were PPIase positive, whereas <24% of the H. pylori isolates from superficial gastritis patients were positive. PPIases catalyze the slow interconversion between cis and trans conformation of proline residues and affect protein folding and function (Kern et al., 1995). Thus, PPIases emerge as key

players in the control of fundamental proteins involved in cell proliferation and oncogenic transformation (Lu et al., 2007). Consistent with this, PPIases have been characterized as a virulence factor of L. pneumophila and T. cruzi (Fischer et al., 1992; Pereira et al., 2002). In addition, a novel pathogen-associated factor, HP0175, which contains PPIase core at its C-terminus, has been shown to induce gastric epithelial cell death through interaction with TLR4 (Pathak et al., 2006). Apoptosis contributes to the pathological outcome of the infection by disturbing the balance between the rate of new cell production and the rate of cell loss by apoptosis. Atrophic gastritis and gastric dysplasia after H. pylori

infection are associated with accelerated apoptosis of the gastric epithelium (Xia & Talley, 2001). PPIases may contribute to the pathology of gastric cancer by inducing hyperproliferation of gastric epithelium. Although PPIase is identified see more as a gastric cancer-specific H. pylori gene, our present result shows that fewer than a quarter of the superficial gastritis-associated H. pylori strains contain this gene. Given that PPIase plays an important role in cell growth, apoptosis and oncogenic transformation, we would predict that the PPIase-positive subpopulation of the superficial gastritis patients may

have the potential to develop severe gastric diseases such as atrophic gastritis, gastric dysplasia and gastric cancer. Thus, it would be worthwhile to clinically follow-up these superficial gastritis patients infected SB-3CT with PPIase-positive H. pylori. PPIase may represent a novel marker for gastric cancer and a potential therapeutic target. This work was supported by grants from the National Basic Research Development Program of China (973 Program Award No.2010CB529304), National Natural Science Foundation of China (Award No.3100074) and the Foundation of the Key Laboratory of Cancer Intervention in Liaoning Province (Award No. 2009S106). “
“The cold stress response of Pseudomonas putida KT2440 was investigated by genomewide deep cDNA sequencing and gel-free MS-based protein profiling. Transcriptome and proteome profiles were assessed at 30 °C and 2 h after a downshift from 30 to 10 °C.

3a). All four of these inhibitory compounds reduced the biomass by over 80% at the highest concentration (25 mM), with decanol, dodecanol and decanoic acid showing no significant differences between their concentration-dependent inhibitory profiles across the range tested. Biomass inhibition by octanoic acid was not observed until ≥1.6 mM. The three most effective exogenous inhibitory compounds were tested against preformed mature selleck A. fumigatus biofilms. The biomass of A. fumigatus biofilms was shown to be reduced by all three compounds in a concentration-dependent manner, with decanol showing a reduction across the entire concentration range tested,

whereas both decanoic acid and dodecanol did not reduce the biomass significantly until concentrations of 1.6 mM were applied. All

three agents reduced the biomass by ≥85% at 25 mM (Fig. 3b). The pulmonary cavity of CF patients is a unique environment impacted by a complex microbial ecology. However, to date, relatively little is known about bacterial–fungal cross kingdom interactions within the CF lung. Cell-to-cell signalling is thought to play an important role in determining the ability of particular pathogens to compete with each other for space and nutrients and may contribute to the ability of microorganisms to persist within the CF pulmonary cavity. The data presented herein are suggestive that an antagonistic relationship exists between A. fumigatus and P. aeruginosa, which is influenced through the Rucaparib solubility dmso buy PD0332991 release of small diffusible extracellular molecules. Pseudomonas aeruginosa and A. fumigatus are frequently isolated from CF patients. Typically by the age of 18, up to 80% of CF patients are infected with P. aeruginosa, whereas the incidence of A. fumigatus is somewhat variable in CF patients (Bakare et al., 2003; Valenza et al., 2008). This study demonstrated that P. aeruginosa significantly impedes A. fumigatus growth. This is in agreement with reports from elsewhere describing antagonistic properties for bacteria isolated from clinical pulmonary samples (Kerr et al., 1999; Yadav et al., 2005). However,

investigation of the antifungal properties of bacterial CF lung pathogens against a panel of fungi, including A. fumigatus, showed that P. aeruginosa clinical isolates were shown to be unable to completely inhibit A. fumigatus (Kerr, 1994a, b). In agreement, our data showed that once filamentous biofilms had been produced, the inhibitory capacity of P. aeruginosa was significantly restricted, with coaggregation upon hyphae observed throughout A. fumigatus biofilms. Recent studies report a similar phenomenon, where P. aeruginosa and C. albicans were shown to exhibit a degree of mutual inhibition within the biofilm (Bandara et al., 2010b), suggesting that these mixed species consortia play a role in the pathobiology of the CF lung.

Monti. The authors are grateful to Professor Antonio Contestabile for critically reading the article. The skillful technical assistance of Miss Monia Bentivogli is gratefully acknowledged. Abbreviations BSA bovine serum albumin C/EBP CCAAT enhancer-binding protein CGN cerebellar granule neuron DMEM Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium DTT dithiothreitol ER endoplasmic reticulum EV empty vector GAP-43 growth-asociated protein 43 GFP green fluorescent protein learn more LAP liver activator protein LIP liver inhibitory protein

MTT 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide NMDA N-methyl-d-aspartate ODC ornithine decarboxylase PBS phosphate-buffered see more saline pCMV plasmid cytomegalovirus SUMO small ubiquitin-like modifier “
“Functional neuroimaging studies have shown activation of the supramarginal gyrus during pitch memory tasks. A previous transcranial direct current stimulation study using cathodal stimulation over the left supramarginal gyrus reported a detrimental effect on short-term pitch memory performance, indicating an important role

of the supramarginal gyrus in pitch memory. The current study aimed to determine whether pitch memory could be improved following anodal stimulation of the left supramarginal gyrus. The performances of non-musicians on two pitch memory tasks (pitch recognition and recall) and a visual memory control task following anodal or sham transcranial direct current stimulation were compared. The results show that, post-stimulation, the anodal group but not the control group performed significantly better on both pitch memory tasks; performance did not differ on the face memory task. These findings provide

strong support for the causal involvement of the left supramarginal gyrus in the pitch memory process, and highlight the potential efficacy of transcranial direct current stimulation as a tool to improve pitch memory. “
“Eyeblink classical conditioning (EBCC) is a cerebellum-dependent paradigm of associative motor learning, and abnormal EBCC is a neurophysiological indicator of cerebellar dysfunction. We have previously demonstrated impaired EBCC in patients with primary dystonia, 6-phosphogluconolactonase but it remains uncertain if this represents actual cerebellar pathology or reflects a functional cerebellar disruption. We examined this further by: (1) studying acquisition and retention of EBCC in a second session in eight patients with cervical dystonia (CD) who had a first session 7–10 days earlier; and (2) by investigating the potential of continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS) over the right cerebellar hemisphere to modify a first-ever EBCC session in 11 patients with CD. EBCC data of eight healthy controls previously studied were used for additional between-group comparisons.

Monti. The authors are grateful to Professor Antonio Contestabile for critically reading the article. The skillful technical assistance of Miss Monia Bentivogli is gratefully acknowledged. Abbreviations BSA bovine serum albumin C/EBP CCAAT enhancer-binding protein CGN cerebellar granule neuron DMEM Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium DTT dithiothreitol ER endoplasmic reticulum EV empty vector GAP-43 growth-asociated protein 43 GFP green fluorescent protein LBH589 LAP liver activator protein LIP liver inhibitory protein

MTT 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide NMDA N-methyl-d-aspartate ODC ornithine decarboxylase PBS phosphate-buffered Neratinib saline pCMV plasmid cytomegalovirus SUMO small ubiquitin-like modifier “
“Functional neuroimaging studies have shown activation of the supramarginal gyrus during pitch memory tasks. A previous transcranial direct current stimulation study using cathodal stimulation over the left supramarginal gyrus reported a detrimental effect on short-term pitch memory performance, indicating an important role

of the supramarginal gyrus in pitch memory. The current study aimed to determine whether pitch memory could be improved following anodal stimulation of the left supramarginal gyrus. The performances of non-musicians on two pitch memory tasks (pitch recognition and recall) and a visual memory control task following anodal or sham transcranial direct current stimulation were compared. The results show that, post-stimulation, the anodal group but not the control group performed significantly better on both pitch memory tasks; performance did not differ on the face memory task. These findings provide

strong support for the causal involvement of the left supramarginal gyrus in the pitch memory process, and highlight the potential efficacy of transcranial direct current stimulation as a tool to improve pitch memory. “
“Eyeblink classical conditioning (EBCC) is a cerebellum-dependent paradigm of associative motor learning, and abnormal EBCC is a neurophysiological indicator of cerebellar dysfunction. We have previously demonstrated impaired EBCC in patients with primary dystonia, GBA3 but it remains uncertain if this represents actual cerebellar pathology or reflects a functional cerebellar disruption. We examined this further by: (1) studying acquisition and retention of EBCC in a second session in eight patients with cervical dystonia (CD) who had a first session 7–10 days earlier; and (2) by investigating the potential of continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS) over the right cerebellar hemisphere to modify a first-ever EBCC session in 11 patients with CD. EBCC data of eight healthy controls previously studied were used for additional between-group comparisons.

Other physiological characteristics of the isolate were tested with API 20NE and API 50CH test strips (bioMérieux). API 20NE and API 50CH tests results

were observed over a period of 7 days at 25 °C. Antibiotic sensitivity was tested by spreading a bacterial suspension on R2A and applying discs impregnated with the following antibiotics (concentration per disc): see more ampicillin (10 μg), amikacin (30 μg), ceftriaxone (30 μg), clindamycin (2 μg), gentamicin (30 μg), kanamycin (30 μg), neomycin (30 μg), penicillin (10 μg), streptomycin (10 μg), tetracycline (30 μg) and vancomycin (30 mg). Isoprenoid quinones of strain DR-f4T were analyzed with freeze-dried cells previously grown in R2A for 3 days according to the method of Collins & Jones (1981) and Komagata & Suzuki (1987). The quinone was purified via preparative thin-layer chromatography (silica gel F254; Merck) and was identified using an HPLC (Hitachi L-5000) equipped with a reverse-phase column (YMC pack ODS-AM; YMC Co.). For fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) analysis, strain DR-f4T was cultured on R2A (pH 6.0) at 20 °C for 3 days, which are the same culture conditions as those used for FAMEs analysis of the closest type strain, M. lappiensis ANJL12T (Männistöet al., 2010). selleck inhibitor FAMEs were extracted according to the standard protocol of the microbial identification system (MIDI;

Sasser, 1990), separated by a gas chromatograph (HP 6890N; Agilent) and identified using the sherlock software package (MIDI). Genomic DNA of strain DR-f4T and E. coli KCTC 2441T was extracted according to the method described Bumetanide by Sambrook & Russell (2001). The G+C content of the isolate was determined using the method described by Mesbah et al. (1989). Briefly, genomic DNAs were hydrolyzed and dephosphorylated with nuclease P1 and with alkaline phosphatase, respectively, and then the mixtures of nucleosides were analyzed by HPLC for G+C mol%. The 16S rRNA gene was amplified by PCR with the universal primers 27F and 1492R (Lane, 1991). After

purification of the PCR product, the sequencing reaction of the 16S rRNA gene was performed at SolGent Co., Korea, using an ABI prism Bigdye terminator cycle sequencing ready reaction kit V.3.1 and an ABI 3730XL capillary DNA Sequencer (Applied Biosystems). The sequence of the 16S rRNA gene was assembled using vector nti software (Invitrogen). The sequence of strain DR-f4T was compared with available 16S rRNA gene sequences from the GenBank using the blast program (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/blast/) and the EzTaxon server (http://www.eztaxon.org/; Chun et al., 2007). The 16S rRNA gene sequence of strain DR-f4T was aligned with those of representative members of selected taxa belonging to the family Sphingobacteriaceae using the clustal_x software (Thompson et al., 1997), and this alignment was edited manually.

4% similarity of the clam isolates, which was higher than that observed between the fish isolate and either clam strain (98.2%). The topology of the maximum parsimony tree, obtained from 2D-PAGE analysis, and the phylogenetic tree, constructed with the maximum likelihood algorithm from concatenated sequences of 16S rRNA gene and five housekeeping genes (atpA, pyrH, recA, rpoA and rpoD), was very similar, confirming the closer relationship FG-4592 ic50 between the two clam isolates. Vibrio species are extensively

distributed in marine environments, associated with a wide range of marine organisms; some of the species are pathogenic to humans (Thompson et al., 2006; Beaz-Hidalgo et al., 2010). Genotyping strategies such as restriction fragment length polymorphism and pulse field gel electrophoresis have been used traditionally for epidemiological analysis of Vibrio isolates (Castro et al., 1997; Romalde et al., 2002). PCR typing methods have also been widely used, including randomly amplified polymorphic DNA analysis and repetitive-sequence-based polymerase chain reaction based on polymorphic, repetitive extragenic palindromic sequences and enterobacterial repetitive

intergenic consensus (Rodríguez et al., 2006). More recently, amplified fragment length polymorphism and multilocus sequence analysis (MLSA) (Maiden, 2006) have allowed a more precise identification of Vibrio species (Beaz-Hidalgo et al., 2008, 2010; and references therein). Proteomics could complement and extend Amobarbital the nucleic acid analytical find more technologies,

being an experimental link between the expressed product and the genome (Lester & Hubbard, 2002; Phillips & Bogyo, 2005; Norbeck et al., 2006; Cash, 2009; Zhang et al., 2010). 2D-PAGE has been successfully applied for the discrimination of closely related isolates (Cash et al., 1995; Dumas et al., 2008), revealing even more variability than with DNA–DNA hybridization, as protein content reflects dynamic changes produced in the cells as a response to changes in the environment (Andersen et al., 1984; Cash, 2009; Zhang et al., 2010). Vibrio tapetis is the causative agent of an epizootic infection in adult clams called brown ring disease (Borrego et al., 1996). The first studies indicated that strains of this pathogen constituted a homogeneous group. However, as new strains were isolated from different hosts, including different mollusk and fish species, some variability on the basis of their antigenic, phenotypic and genotypic characteristics has been demonstrated, leading to the description of three main groups within this species that correlate with the type of host (Castro et al., 1996, 1997; Romalde et al., 2002; Rodríguez et al., 2006). In this work, a proteomic method, 2D-PAGE, was used to study the intraspecific variability of representative strains of the three groups described for V. tapetis, as well as an additional indication of their phylogenetic relationship.

Table S1. Mutated oligonucleotides used for the amplification of the point-mutated genes of the vanillate MT I of Acetobacterium dehalogenans. Table S2. Mutated oligonucleotides used for the amplification of the point-mutated genes of the veratrol MT I of Acetobacterium dehalogenans. Please note: Wiley-Blackwell is not responsible

for the content or functionality of any supporting materials supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing material) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article. “
“The genome of Dictyostelium contains two novel hybrid-type polyketide synthases (PKSs) known as ‘Steely’; the Steely enzyme is formed by the fusion of type I and type III PKSs. One of these enzymes, SteelyB, is known to be responsible for the production of the stalk cell-inducing factor DIF-1 in vivo. On the other hand, the product(s) and expression pattern of SteelyA are not selleck screening library clearly understood, because there are two different reports associated with the in vitro products of SteelyA and its expression pattern. To solve this problem, we first examined the expression pattern using two different primer sets and found that it was quite similar to that shown in the dictyExpress database. stlA expression peaked at approximately 3 h and

declined, but showed a small peak around the end of development. Fluorouracil mw Next, we examined the in vivo product of SteelyA using a stlA null mutant and found that the mutant lacked 4-methyl-5-pentylbenzene-1,3-diol (MPBD). This null mutant showed aberrant, glassy sori, and most of the cells in the sori remained amoeba-like without a cell wall. This defect was restored by adding 200 nM of MPBD to the agar. These results indicate that SteelyA Benzatropine produces MPBD in vivo and induces spore

maturation. Dictyostelium is an excellent model organism to study a developmental system that is regulated by the secreted signal molecules. Starvation triggers Dictyostelium cells to aggregate and form a multicellular mound, eventually forming a fruiting body that contains two types of differentiated cells: stalk and spore cells (Kessin, 2001). In the mound stage, cells begin to differentiate into prespore and prestalk cells at random positions. The differentiated cells sort out and form an anterior prestalk and posterior prespore zones at the slug stage (Kay & Thompson, 2009). The prestalk cell population is composed of several subtypes of cells (Williams, 1997), whereas the prespore cells are believed to be rather homogeneous. Under the appropriate conditions, the slug transforms into the final morphology, the fruiting body, which consists of a spore mass atop vacuolated and dead stalk cells. In Dictyostelium, the developmental process is a stress response triggered by starvation and the cell type differentiation process is mainly controlled by extracellular signals.

None of them habitually napped during the day. Before the experimental sessions, all subjects were familiarized with the experimental setting by taking an adaption nap Trichostatin A in the sleep laboratory (including electrode placement). Subjects who showed no SWS in the adaptation nap were not included in the experiment proper. The experimental protocol was approved by the ethics committee of the University of Lübeck, and the study was conducted in accordance with the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki. All participants gave written informed consent prior to participation. The experiment proper consisted of two sessions (within-subject cross-over

design), balanced in order across subjects, and separated by ~4 weeks (30.75 ± 10.5 days, to diminish carry-over effects between sessions and to control for the female menstrual cycle). In each session, participants were asked

to take an afternoon nap and perform on various learning tasks after the nap. In one of the two sessions, tSOS was applied during the nap, whereas in the other session, which served as control, sham stimulation (with an equal set-up but no stimulation) was applied. See Fig. 1A for the experimental procedure. On experimental days, subjects were required to get up at 05:00 h (to increase sleep propensity), and this was controlled by an ActiWatch 7 (CamNtech, Cambridge, UK) that was attached to the subject’s wrist (of the non-dominant hand on the evening before the session at 20:00 h), and by protocols of day-time activities. Subjects arrived at the laboratory at 14:00 h, were prepared for polysomnographic JQ1 research buy recordings and tSOS, and went to bed at 15:00 h. tSOS (or sham stimulation) began after subjects had attained stable non-REM sleep for the first time after sleep onset (see below for stimulation parameters). Subjects were woken after either one non-REM–REM sleep cycle (i.e. at the end of the first REM sleep phase) or after 90 min of sleep. After a period of 30 min, to allow recovery from sleep inertia, the enough encoding phase started; this included learning on three declarative tasks (pictures, word pairs,

and word list) and one procedural task (finger sequence tapping), which always were performed in the same order between 17:00 h and 19:30 h (Fig. 1A). A constant order of tasks was employed to reduce performance variability and because we did not expect any task interactions that would change the direction of tSOS effects. After learning, a standardized meal was served, and this was followed by the retrieval phase ~30 min later. To control for potential confounding influences of changes in arousal, mood, motivation, and activation, the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (Watson et al., 1988) was applied before sleep and before the encoding phase. To additionally control for potential differences in sleep debt, the Stanford Sleepiness Scale (Hoddes et al.