5% and 79.6±6.5% respectively N=9, p<0.01) when compared to solutions containing 0.1% HA (Sol2A) (53.3±13.3%; N=9), 0.05% HA (Sol2B) (50.6±5.3%; N=9), or low (1.5%) albumin (50.4±4.3%; N=9). Sol1 displayed the same low level of senescent cells ACP-196 solubility dmso as the control (CTRL, not cryopreserved cells), while Sol3 displayed increased senescent cells compared to CTRL (p<0.05). Sol1 showed a proliferation rate significantly higher than Sol3 (p<0.01), the latter being higher than CTRL (p<0.01).

RT-PCR showed no difference in the expression of tested genes among different cryopreservant solutions, and even among cryopre-rved and freshly isolated cells. The number of colonies in culture was markedly higher in Sol1 (31.50±8.50; N=18, p<0.01) with respect to Sol3 (9.00±3.40; N=18). The increased plating efficiency may depend on CD44-HA bounds which are maintained after thawing. The differentiation potential was preserved when cells were cryopreserved both in Sol1 and Sol3, since thawed cells showed a higher expression of albu-min/cytokeratin(CK)18 when transferred in medium tailored for hepatocytes (N=5, p<0.01),

higher expression of secretin receptor/CK7 in medium tailored for cholangiocytes (N=5, p<0.01), and, finally, higher expression of insulin/c-peptide in medium tailored for p-pancreatic islets (N=5, p<0.01), in comparison to hBTSCs maintained constantly in KM. CCI-779 Conclusions: We identified an HA-based strategy and the conditions for a successful cryopreservation of hBTSCs. This could help in clinical

trials of cell therapy for liver diseases and poses the basis for hBTSCs banking. Disclosures: The following people have nothing to disclose: Vincenzo Cardinale, Lorenzo Nevi, Raffaele Gentile, Guido Carpino, Alice Fraveto, Alessia Torrice, Alfredo Cantafora, Vincenzo Pasqualino, Giovanni Casella, Daniela Bosco, Alessandro Pintore, Giuseppe Spagnolo, Michela Nardacci, Pasquale Bartolomeo Berloco, Eugenio Gaudio, Domenico Alvaro In compensated cirrhosis with portal hypertension (PH), non-selective -blockers (NSBB) are useful to prevent bleeding from varices but not to prevent the development of varices. This suggests that response to NSBB may depend of NADPH-cytochrome-c2 reductase the evolutive stage of PH. This study aimed at characterizing the hemody-namic profile of each stage of PH in compensated cirrhosis and the response to -blockers according to the stage. METHODS: HVPG and systemic hemodynamic were measured in 294 patients with cirrhosis and without any previous decompensation. Of them, 194 patients had clinically significant PH (CSPH), defined by HVPG ≥10mmHg, either without varices (n= 80) or with small varices (n= 114), and 81 patients had mild-PH with HVPG of 6.0-9.5 mmHg. Measurements were repeated after i.v propranolol administration (0.15 mg/ Kg) RESULTS: As compared with patients with CSPH, those with mild-PH had lower liver stiffness (elastography 19±7 vs 30±14 Kpa, P< 0.001), better liver function (MELD 5.6±2.1 vs 6.5±2.6, P<0.

It is also possible that intestinal effects of GFT505 contribute to its hepatoprotective role in NAFLD/NASH. Indeed, PPAR-α activation in the intestine by agonists such as GFT505 has recently been shown to contribute to increased HDL production,[31] indicating a potential role for intestinal PPAR-α in the regulation of whole-body lipoprotein this website metabolism. In view of its extensive enterohepatic cycling, GFT505 activation of PPARs in both the intestine and liver thus results in an improved lipid profile that would be beneficial in dyslipidemic NASH patients. The PPARs have

been proposed as targets of interest to treat NAFLD/NASH.[10] Pilot studies with the thiazolidinediones in patients with NASH demonstrated improvements of IR, liver enzymes, and liver fat, but variable results on histological NASH features such as cellular injury, liver inflammation, and fibrosis.[32-35] In two larger studies performed in patients with biopsy-proven NASH, long-term treatment with pioglitazone led to clear

metabolic and liver histological improvement, but did not significantly improve fibrosis.[36, 37] Human studies performed with marketed PPAR-α agonists have generated inconsistent results on NAFLD/NASH. In a prospective study in patients with NASH, gemfibrozil demonstrated favorable effects on liver enzymes,[38] whereas fenofibrate showed variable results.[39-42] No PPAR-δ Z-VAD-FMK agonist is clinically available at present. However, treatment of overweight dyslipidemic patients with the PPAR-δ agonist, MBX-8025, for 8 weeks led to a reduction in liver enzymes.[43] Moreover, after 2 weeks of treatment in moderately obese men, the PPAR-δ agonist, GW501516, reduced liver fat content by 20%, in conjunction with aminophylline reductions in plasma GGT levels.[44] To assess the potential

of GFT505 to ameliorate liver dysfunction associated with MetS, its effects on plasma markers of liver dysfunction were evaluated after 4-12 weeks of treatment at 80 mg/day in four independent phase II clinical studies performed in dyslipidemic, prediabetic, insulin-resistant, and/or diabetic patients. Quartile analysis showed that GFT505 significantly lowered liver dysfunction markers, such as ALT, GGT, and ALP. To confirm the therapeutic potential of GFT505 on histological features of NASH, a phase IIb study (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01694849) in biopsy-proven NASH patients is currently ongoing. In conclusion, together with its favorable effects on hepatic and peripheral insulin sensitivity, glucose homeostasis, and lipid metabolism,[19, 45] the present study shows the therapeutic potential of GFT505 for NASH treatment. By activating both PPAR-α and PPAR-δ, GFT505 acts on key cellular mechanisms involved in NAFLD/NASH pathogenesis, including TG accumulation, extracellular matrix synthesis, and inflammation.

The aetiology of the underlying liver disease was: HBV (41%), Hepatitis C (23%), and Alcohol related liver disease (16%). The median age at diagnosis was 56 years, 62% were male. The median duration

of surveillance was 3.4 years. HCC was detected in 23 patients (5%). The overall adherence rate for AFP testing and US surveillance was 79% and 59%, respectively. US adherence correlated strongly with clinic attendance but even in those attending regularly, 20% of US surveillance scans were missed. Conclusion: The poor performance of US surveillance highlights the rationale for continuing AFP testing at this time. Strategies that we have undertaken to improve US surveillance rates include: a patient education brochure, nurse specialist cirrhosis clinics, and improving clinic non-attendance procedures. Key Word(s): 1. HCC; 2. ultrasound; 3. cirrhosis; 4. Surveillance; Presenting buy LEE011 Author: JIN TAO Additional Authors: LEIJIA LI, BIN WU Corresponding Author: JIN TAO Affiliations: The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University Objective: To investigate the clinical characteristics of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP)

associated with cirrhosis to provide basis for the clinical reasonable application. Methods: The clinical manifestations and signs, the laboratory examinations, ascitic fluid cultures and drugs sensitivity test and the prognosis of SBP were retrospectively analyzed in 82 patients with cirrhosis. Results: Among the 82 patients, the ascites bacterial culture was positive in 28 cases, the Gram-negative bacilli covered the largest percentage of pathogenic bacteria (23 cases, 82.1 %). Among them, PS-341 in vivo MycoClean Mycoplasma Removal Kit the Escherichia coli was the most common of all (15 cases, 53.6 %). Conclusion: Patiens with liver cirrhosis of unknown cause fever, abdominal pain, rapid increase in short-term ascites or peripheral blood leukocytes, neutrophils should be alert to the occurrence of SBP. The early diagnosis of spontaneous peritonitis and the prompt, sufficiency and effective antibiotic treatment are the primary factors to improve the later period liver disease patient

prognosis. Key Word(s): 1. peritonitis; 2. cirrhosis; 3. ascites; Presenting Author: JIN TAO Additional Authors: YINGHUI YANG, BIN WU Corresponding Author: JIN TAO Affiliations: The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University Objective: To compare the epidemiological, clinical, biological and histological characters among autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) and their overlap syndrome (OS), and to assess the value of IgM and IgG in differentiating AIH, PBC and OS. Methods: One hundred and six cases in our hospital from July of 2006 to July of 2010 were analyzed. The clinical manifestations and signs, the laboratory examinations were analyzed We evaluated the expression of IgM and IgG cells in liver tissues by immunostaining, and their titer in serum by ELISA.

24 Until recently, our understanding of PBC has been limited by the

absence of appropriate animal models. Based upon a rigorous quantitative analysis of the epitope of PDC-E2, our laboratory has identified several organic compounds that resemble the immunodominant epitope of PDC-E2. In particular, 2-octynoic acid (2OA), a compound found in perfumes, lipstick, and many common food flavorings, reacts equally or even better than lipoic acid to AMAs.25-26 Importantly, immunization with 2OA when coupled with bovine serum albumin (BSA), induces high-titer AMAs and portal inflammation strikingly selleck chemical similar to human PBC.27-29 We report herein that treatment of this xenobiotic induced murine model of human PBC with either anti-CD20 or anti-CD79

monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) exacerbates liver pathology, even though it successfully depletes B cells and diminishes the production of AMAs. These findings have important clinical implications for the treatment of PBC and other autoimmune diseases in which B cell regulatory function may be critical. 2OA, 2-octynoic acid; ALP, alkaline phosphatase; ALT, alanine aminotransferase; AMA, antimitochondrial antibody; APC, antigen-presenting cell; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; BSA, bovine serum albumin; dnTGF-βRII, transforming growth factor β receptor II dominant negative; EAE, autoimmune encephalomyelitis; IFN-γ, interferon-γ; Ig, immunoglobulin; IL, interleukin; mAb, monoclonal PDK4 antibody; MCP-1, monocyte chemotactic protein-1; PBC, primary biliary selleckchem cirrhosis; PBS, phosphate-buffered

saline; PDC-E2, E2 subunit of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex; TLR, Toll-like receptor. Female C57BL/6J (B6) mice were obtained from The Jackson Laboratory (Bar Harbor, ME) and maintained in ventilated cages under specific pathogen-free conditions at the animal facilities of the University of California at Davis. The Animal Care and Use Committee in University of California Davis approved all studies. To deplete B cells in vivo, four independent groups of 6-week-old mice were injected intraperitoneally weekly with either sterile murine immunoglobulin (IgG) 2a anti-mouse CD20 antibody (n = 8) (250 μg/250 μL in phosphate-buffered saline [PBS]), hamster IgG2 anti-mouse CD79b antibody (n = 10) (1 mg/100 μL in PBS), or isotype-matched control mAbs. The anti-mouse CD20 IgG2a (Biogen Idec, San Diego, CA) and the Armenian hamster anti-mouse CD79b IgG used herein have been described elsewhere.30, 31 The non–cross-reactive mouse anti-human CD20 antibody (250 μg/250 μL in PBS) and an Armenian hamster normal IgG (1 mg/mL) (Innovative Research, Novi, MI) were used as controls. One week after the beginning of B cell depletion therapy, autoimmune cholangitis was induced as described.

Exclusion criteria included severe liver, lung, renal, or hematological disorders; a history of peptic ulcer disease or gastrointestinal surgery; a history of connective tissue disorder; Metabolism inhibitor and chest pain originating in a musculoskeletal disorder. The interview was conducted by one investigator, who provided patients with a standardized set of questions. To clarify the characteristics of these patients, we analyzed the extent of overweight (body mass index >25 kg/m2), smoking history, and history of chronic alcoholism (> 20 g ethanol/day). Typical reflux symptoms were defined

as heartburn and acid regurgitation. Heartburn was described as a burning sensation rising from lower chest up toward the

neck, and acid regurgitation was described as the regurgitation of acidic fluid from the stomach or lower chest to the throat. All patients underwent UGI endoscopy, esophageal manometry, and combined ambulatory 24-h esophageal impedance–pH monitoring (MII–pH). One experienced observer, who was blinded to the clinical details of these patients, interpreted the results. The study protocol was approved by the local ethics committee, and all participating patients gave informed consent. UGI endoscopy was carried out after an overnight fast. It was performed with standard endoscopes (XQ-230, XQ-240; Olympus Optical, Tokyo, Japan) by two experienced endoscopists who were blinded to patients’ Pritelivir order symptoms. The stomach and the second portion of the duodenum were inspected to exclude possible lesions. The distal portion of the esophagus was carefully examined to determine the presence of mucosal injury. The extent of esophageal mucosal damage was assessed using the Los Angeles Classification.7 Esophageal manometry was performed in the supine position using an eight-lumen polyvinyl manometric tube with four distal side holes and four proximal openings situated 5 cm apart (ESM38R; Arndorfer Medical

Specialties, Greendale, WI, USA). Each channel was connected to external physiological pressure transducers, and was continuously perfused with bubble-free, distilled Methane monooxygenase water at 0.6 mL/min via a low-compliance pneumohydraulic system (Mui Scientific, Ontario, Canada). The manometric tube was introduced transnasally and then slowly withdrawn in 1-cm increments by station pull-through in order to measure the lower esophageal sphincter (LES) resting pressure. LES relaxation was assessed with three wet swallows of 5 mL water. The completeness of relaxation was determined by residual LES pressure compared with resting LES pressure. Peristalsis was evaluated by positioning at least three pressure sensors in the body of the esophagus, situated at 5-cm intervals. The distal sensor was positioned 3 cm above the LES, and a series of 15 wet swallows was performed.

3 The frequency of TAT down-regulation was significantly higher in HCC with loss of TAT allele (25/27,

92.6%) than that in HCC without TAT deletion (3/23, 13.0%, P < 0.001), suggesting that the down-regulation of TAT was associated with the loss of the TAT allele. Interestingly, homo-deletion of TAT alleles was detected in two cases, H12 and H36. Loss of both copies of genomic material of the TAT gene was confirmed by both southern blot analysis and PCR. The weak TAT band observed in H12T and H36T (Fig. 1C) might be caused by nontumor DNA contamination or the heterogeneity of the tumor. The homo-deleted regions in H12 and H36 were several kilobases and larger than 30 kb affecting a neighbor gene GST3, respectively. Identification of genes within the homo-deleted region is a useful strategy to isolate a tumor selleck compound library suppressor gene. To date, the majority of classical tumor suppressor genes (TSG), including APC, CDKN2A (p16)

and RB1, have been identified by the delineation of homozygous deletions.17-19 Down-regulation of TAT was detected in 28/50 (56%) of 50 primary HCCs by RT-PCR. A similar frequency of TAT down-regulation (77/138, 55.8%) was detected in 148 primary HCCs by IHC, compared with their paired nontumor liver tissues. The down-regulation of TAT was not only associated with the loss of TAT allele, but also DNA hypermethylation in the 5′-CGI of Tolmetin TAT. It has been well documented that DNA methylation of CpG islands located near gene promoters affects this website the transcription of specific genes.20, 21 Aberrant DNA methylation of two genes located at 16q22.1, E-cadherin and TAT, have been reported in pretumorous conditions and HCCs.22, 23 Methylation of one TAT allele could be detected in all 50 adjacent nontumor liver samples, indicating that one TAT allele was inactivated in early development. Loss of the active (unmethylated) allele of TAT, which was detected in 18/50 (36%) of HCCs, might be one of the major mechanisms of TAT inactivation. Statistical analysis further confirmed that the down-regulation

of TAT was significantly associated with both TAT deletion and methylation (P < 0.001). The functional study provided the first evidence that TAT has strong tumor-suppressive ability, including the inhibition of foci formation, colony formation in soft agar, and tumor formation in nude mice. A mechanism study found that the tumor-suppressive effect of TAT was associated with its proapoptotic effect. The apoptosis induced by TAT was mediated through the intrinsic mitochondrial pathway because caspase-9, but not caspase-8, was activated. A molecular study found that the proapoptotic effect of TAT was triggered by the stimulation of apoptotic agents such as STS. Before STS treatment, the apoptotic index between TAT-7703 and Vec-7703 was similar.

Upon exposure to fibrotic stress, miR-29b

was down-regulated in stellate cells and hepatocytes, whereas it was up-regulated in Kupffer cells and endothelial cells. Activated hepatic stellate cells are key mediators of fibrosis because they are reported to be the major cell type producing collagen and other ECM proteins in the injured liver. Along with the notion that find more miR-29 directly suppresses the expression of various ECM mRNAs, it has been postulated that miR-29 down-regulation directly leads to the overexpression of ECM gene products during fibrosis. These results also suggest that although miR profiling of RNA isolated from whole organ lysate is useful, the additional effort to obtain samples from purified cell types will provide clearer insights into the molecular pathophysiology. These observations are also consistent with previous studies demonstrating that the increased fibrillar collagen expression in liver fibrosis is primarily posttranscriptional.12 Mechanistically, the authors showed that the treatment of hepatic stellate cells with transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) suppressed miR-29 selleck products expression; this provided evidence that the fibrogenic effect of TGF-β is mediated in part through the down-regulation of miR-29. TGF-β3 has also been reported to be a direct target of miR-29.13 Such cross-regulatory relationships between miRs and their cognate mRNA targets

are commonly observed. In this case, miR-29 acts as a feed forward switch: the fibrogenic signal initiates TGF-β-induced miR-29 down-regulation. Reduced miR-29

activity further de-represses TGF-β expression and results in amplification of the fibrogenic signal. The miR-29 down-regulation observed during fibrosis directed the authors to investigate its utility as a circulating biomarker for liver fibrosis. Emerging evidence suggests that miRs are found in lipid-enclosed particles in the serum called exosomes.14, 15 During tissue injury, the release of tissue-specific out miRs (e.g., miR-122 and miR-208 during hepatic and cardiac injuries, respectively) into the circulation has been reported.16, 17 Despite the ubiquitous expression of miR-29 and its modest expression level in the liver among a list of organs tested, this study demonstrated that the amount of circulating miR-29 was significantly inversely correlated with the advancement of fibrotic stages. Altogether, the utility of miR-29 as a circulating biomarker of fibrosis in the liver and other organs warrants further investigation. The repression of ECM genes by miR-29 and its down-regulation during fibrosis strongly suggest that miR-29 down-regulation contributes to the pathogenesis of fibrosis, and the reintroduction of miR-29 could be a novel therapeutic strategy for fibrosis. To test such a hypothesis, one must determine the therapeutic effect of an miR-29 mimic in vivo.

Methods: Their ability to induce the production of immunoglobulin E (IgE) specific was evaluated using an assay of homologous passive cutaneous anaphylaxis. Furthermore, an allergen recognized as the lupine (Lupinus angustifolius) was included

as a control. Results: The analysis by SDS-PAGE of pigeon pea protein showed four polypeptide bands from 75 to 50 KDa and approximately to 35 KDa. Sensitization tests with both protein isolates, from green beans and dry beans of pigeon pea did not induce the production of specific IgE in the 77.8% and 75% of cases, respectively. The pigeon pea protein stimulated the production of immunoglobulin G (IgG), determined by a specific ELISA. Conclusion: The pigeon pea

protein showed a reduced capability as an allergen in this in vivo model; its use can be an alternative to lupine and soybean flour. Nevertheless, other tests in AZD9291 purchase animal models via the gastrointestinal tract and use of adjuvants are necessary. Key Word(s): 1. allergies; 2. leguminous; 3. pigeon pea; 4. proteins; Presenting Author: Md. Ariful Haque Mollik Corresponding Author: Md. Ariful Haque Mollik Affiliations: Peoples Integrated Alliance Objective: Scientists are searching for new leads from the natural sources to combat different diseases. Until recently an insignificant part of the plants has been scientifically evaluated for their medicinal values. The investigations were undertaken to discover new drugs from the natural sources. Celsia coromandelina J.König ex Rottb. belongs to the plant family Scrophulariaceae Juss. and is widely distributed Y-27632 datasheet throughout the Bangladesh. It is locally known as Kukurmota. It is locally used for the remedy of killer diseases as well as debilitating diseases. The investigations examined the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antibacterial effects of its all-parts. Methods: The 75% ethanol extract was tested selleck kinase inhibitor for anti-inflammatory effect using the

carrageenan-induced edema in Wistar rats. Free radical scavenging, total antioxidant, and total phenol content were assessed spectrophotometrically. The extract was tested for antibacterial activities using the agar well diffusion method and micro dilution assays. Results: The 75% ethanol extract gave a maximal inhibition of edema by 75.50% at 30 mg/kg. The total antioxidant capacities expressed in terms of ascorbic acid was 0.610 mg/g dry weight. The total phenol in terms of tannic acid was 7.50 mg/g dry weight. The extract also demonstrated free radical scavenging activities yielding half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) value of 1.175 mg/mL. The all-parts extract however, showed selective antibacterial activities, inhibiting growth of two microorganisms: Bacillus subtilis Ehrenberg, and Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were 500 and 1000 μg/mL respectively.

Many standard migraine preventive drugs also appear effective in reducing aura, such as topiramate and certain antidepressants. Some medications that probably effectively prevent aura may not work as well in prevention of migraine without aura, such as lamotrigine

and verapamil. A different class of medications, not commonly used for migraine prevention alone, has shown promise in the prevention of aura. Memantine blocks the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptor in the brain and is believed to inhibit the spread of brain signaling that occurs with aura. Magnesium may also work by plugging the NMDA glutamate receptor. The risk of stroke in women with migraine without aura is likely not increased beyond that of non-migraineurs. The risk is estimated to increase up to twice normal if a woman does have aura, but this risk

remains very low overall. Adding in estrogen-containing contraception raises the stroke risk 6-fold, and in migraineurs with aura who smoke and use estrogen containing contraceptives, the risk of stroke becomes considerable at 9 times the expected level. Use of selleckchem progesterone-only contraceptives is not clearly linked to stroke. It is strongly recommended that those who have migraine with aura as well as tobacco dependence, at any age, cease smoking. In women with aura older than age 35, particular caution is advised in using estrogen-containing contraceptives or taking hormone replacement therapy because of this additional risk. When discussing contraceptive Tau-protein kinase options, women should notify their gynecologist or primary care doctor if they have migraine with aura. Anyone whose aura worsens after using hormonal therapy will need to stop it. If aura is

atypical, for instance if individual visual, sensory, or speech symptoms last longer than an hour, or there is accompanying weakness, hormonal contraception containing estrogen should not be used. Aura is a common accompaniment to migraine, occurring in about one-quarter of those with migraine. It usually follows an established pattern in any given migraineur. When recognized as typical, it can be treatable and even serve as an early warning to begin addressing the migraine before significant pain onset. With reasonable precautions, such as avoidance of smoking and judicious consideration of estrogen contraception, migraine with aura is a treatable problem seldom associated with complications. To find more resources, please visit the American Migraine Foundation (http://kaywa.me/ir2eb) “
“(Headache 2010;50:146-148) Acquired cerebellar tonsillar herniation is a known complication of lumboperitoneal shunt (LPS) for any indication, including idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH), also known as pseudotumor cerebri.1 While the underlying pathophysiology of IIH remains unknown, increasing body mass index is a clear risk factor for the development of IIH.

13 This yielded a total of 13,016 peptides with adequate peptide intensity reproducibility. Technical replicates were aligned via regression on the log10 intensity measurements and averaged to sample level estimates. The dataset was then normalized using a local mean centering based on a rank invariant peptide subset of 185 peptides, and the resultant data are presented in Supporting Table 3. Patients were grouped into the liver disease progressor or nonprogressor category based on the presence or absence of histologic evidence of

severe liver injury (Batts-Ludwig fibrosis stages 3-4) at 1 year posttransplantation (Fig. 1). Identification of significantly differentially expressed proteins among patient groups was performed by computing area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) find more curve for binary comparisons, and visualized using singular value decomposition initialized multidimensional scaling (SVD-MDS)14, 15 as described in the Supporting Materials and Methods. Samples were collected in 10-mL vacutainers (Becton Dickinson) and allowed to sit at room temperature for 15-30 minutes to allow clotting. The samples were then centrifuged at 3,000g for 15 minutes, the resultant

supernatant aliquoted into CryoTube Vials and stored at −80°C until use. Unbiased metabolomic profiling using 100 μL of serum was performed by Metabolon (Metabolon Inc, Durham, NC) using liquid/gas chromatography coupled with mass PF-02341066 ic50 spectrometry as described.16-18 Coabundance networks that relate proteins by similarity in their abundance profiles (patterns of expression across all patients) allow representation of system-level patterns in the data. A protein association network was constructed based on correlations between protein abundance such that proteins exhibiting similar abundances are connected in the network.12,19 We then integrated information on known protein-protein interactions (http://cytoscape.wodaklab.org/wiki/Data_Sets), producing a master network of connected learn more cellular processes. The topology (connectivity of proteins) in the network

was then calculated using the igraph library in R. The connectivity of proteins or genes in biological networks can provide insight into their relative importance. Briefly, protein or gene “hubs” exhibiting a high degree of connectivity (connected to many other proteins or genes) and “bottlenecks” exhibiting a high betweeness (key connectors of subnetworks within a network) represent central points for controlling communication within a network and tend to play an essential role in growth, virulence and targeting by pathogens.12, 19-22 Bottlenecks were considered to be the top 20% of proteins as ranked by betweeness,20-22 though all observations were similar using 10% and 5% thresholds. Statistical significance was calculated using a Fisher’s exact test; P < 0.05 was considered significant.